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CONTENTS UNIT
1. AN INTRODUCTION TO LAWS UNIT
3. CHALLENGES OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM UNIT
7.CIVIL PROCEDURE AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
CIVIL PROCEDURE AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE UNIT
12. A LAW FIRM STRUCTURE AND PRACTISE UNIT
14. IMPRISONMENT: RETRIBUTION OR REHIBILITATION |
UNIT 4. LEGAL INSTITUTIONS Part 1 JUDICIARY Where the Executive and Legislative branches
are elected by the people, members of the Judicial Branch are appointed by
the President and confirmed by the Senate. Article III of the Constitution, which
establishes the Judicial Branch, leaves Congress significant discretion to
determine the shape and structure of the federal judiciary. Even the number
of Supreme Court Justices is left to Congress – at
times there have been as few as six, while the current number (nine, with one
Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices) has only been in place since
1869. The Constitution also grants Congress the power to establish courts
inferior to the Supreme Court, and to that end Congress has established the
United States district courts, which try most federal cases, and 13 United
States courts of appeals, which review appealed district court cases. Federal judges can only be removed through
impeachment by the House of Representatives and conviction in the Senate.
Judges and justices serve no fixed term – they
serve until their death, retirement, or conviction by the Senate. By design,
this insulates them from the temporary passions of the public, and allows
them to apply the law with only justice in mind, and not electoral or
political concerns. Generally, Congress determines the
jurisdiction of the federal courts. In some cases, however – such as in the
example of a dispute between two or more U.S. states – the Constitution grants the Supreme
Court original jurisdiction, an authority that cannot be stripped by
Congress. The courts only try actual cases and
controversies – a party must show that it has been harmed in
order to bring suit in court. This means that the courts do not issue
advisory opinions on the constitutionality of laws or the legality of actions
if the ruling would have no practical effect. Cases brought before the
judiciary typically proceed from district court to appellate court and may
even end at the Supreme Court, although the Supreme Court hears comparatively
few cases each year. Federal courts enjoy the sole power to
interpret the law, determine the constitutionality of the law, and apply it
to individual cases. The courts, like Congress, can compel the production of
evidence and testimony through the use of a subpoena. The inferior courts are
constrained by the decisions of the Supreme Court – once the Supreme Court
interprets a law, inferior courts must apply the Supreme Court's
interpretation to the facts of a particular case. The Supreme Court of the United States is
the highest court in the land and the only part of the federal judiciary
specifically required by the Constitution. The Constitution does not stipulate the
number of Supreme Court Justices; the number is set instead by Congress.
There have been as few as six, but since 1869 there have been nine Justices,
including one Chief Justice. All Justices are nominated by the President,
confirmed by the Senate, and hold their offices under life tenure. Since
Justices do not have to run or campaign for re-election, they are thought to
be insulated from political pressure when deciding cases. Justices may remain
in office until they resign, pass away, or are impeached and convicted by
Congress. The Court's caseload is almost entirely appellate in nature, and the Court's decisions cannot be
appealed to any authority, as it is the final judicial arbiter in the United
States on matters of federal law. However, the Court may consider appeals
from the highest state courts or from federal appellate courts. The Court
also has original jurisdiction in cases involving ambassadors and other
diplomats, and in cases between states. Although the Supreme Court may hear an
appeal on any question of law provided it has jurisdiction, it usually does
not hold trials. Instead, the Court's task is to interpret the meaning of a
law, to decide whether a law is relevant to a particular set of facts, or to
rule on how a law should be applied. Lower courts are obligated to follow the
precedent set by the Supreme Court when rendering decisions. In almost all instances, the Supreme Court
does not hear appeals as a matter of right; instead, parties must petition
the Court for a writ of certiorari. It is the Court's custom and practice to «grant
cert» if four of the nine Justices decide that they should hear the case. Of
the approximately 7,500 requests for certiorari filed each year, the Court
usually grants cert to fewer than 150. These are typically cases that the
Court considers sufficiently important to require their review; a common
example is the occasion when two or more of the federal courts of appeals
have ruled differently on the same question of federal law. If the Court grants certiorari, Justices
accept legal briefs from the parties to the case, as well as from amicus
curiae, or «friends of the court». These can include industry trade groups,
academics, or even the U.S. government itself. Before issuing a ruling, the
Supreme Court usually hears oral arguments, where the various parties to the
suit present their arguments and the Justices ask them
questions. If the case involves the federal government, the Solicitor General
of the United States presents arguments on behalf of the United States. The
Justices then hold private conferences, make their decision, and (often after
a period of several months) issue the Court's opinion, along with any
dissenting arguments that may have been written. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
The Judicial Branch of the government is 1)_________ up of judges and courts. Federal judges are not
elected by the people. They are appointed by the president and then 2)_________ by the Senate. There is a hierarchy of federal courts in
the United States. At lowest level are 94 U.S. District Courts which 3)_________ different regions of the country and handle
most federal cases. Above the District Courts are the 13 Courts of Appeals.
At the top of the Judicial Branch is the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has
the final say. Federal judges are appointed for life. They 4)_________ only be removed from office by 5)_________ or
by impeachment from Congress. This is to allow judges to make decisions based
on their conscience and not on what they feel they need to do to get elected.
The
job of the courts is to interpret the laws of the Congress. They do not make
laws. They also only make 6)_________ on actual
cases where someone has shown that they have been harmed. The highest 7)_________
in the United States is the Supreme Court. The Constitution doesn't say how
many Supreme Court Justices there should be. There have been as few as 6
justices in the past, but 8)_________ 1869 there
have been 9 justices. The President 9)_________ all the Supreme Court
members and the Senate confirms them. They hold their offices for life. The
Supreme Court doesn't have a lot of trials. What they mostly do is review
cases that have been appealed from the 10)_________
courts. Not all cases that are sent to the Supreme Court are reviewed. Around
7,500 requests are sent to the Supreme Court each year and they only consider
around 150 important enough to 11)_________. The Constitution states that every person
has the right to a fair trial before a competent judge and a jury of their
peers. The Bill of Rights adds to this guaranteeing other rights such as a 12)_________ trial, the right to legal 13)_________, the
right not to be tried for the same crime twice, and protection from cruel
punishments. Once
arrested for a crime, the 14)_________ will get to
appear before a judge to be charged with the crime and to enter a plea of
guilty or not-guilty. Next
the accused is 15)_________ a lawyer, if they can't
afford their own, and is given time to review the evidence and build up their
defense. Then the case is tried before a judge and a jury. If the jury
determines that the 16)_________ is not-guilty, then
charges are dropped and the accused goes free. If the jury has a guilty
verdict, then the 17)_________ determines the
sentence. If
one side feels that the trial wasn't handled correctly or fairly, they can
appeal to a higher court. The higher court may 18)_________
the decision or keep it the same. The highest court is the Supreme Court.
There is no appealing a Supreme Court decision. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Законодательную власть в РФ осуществляет Федеральное собрание – представительный,
законодательный и контролирующий орган, который состоит из Совета Федерации и
Гос.
думы (в субъектах РФ их законодательную власть осуществляют
законодательные органы субъектов РФ). Гос. дума избирается непосредственно гражданами, Совет Федерации
состоит из членов, избранных представительными органами субъектов РФ
(половина членов Совета Федерации) и назначенных главами администрации
субъектов Федерации (вторая половина). Палаты заседают раздельно, однако
могут собираться совместно, на пример для заслушивания Посланий Президента
РФ, Конституционного суда РФ, выступлений руководителей иностранных
государств. Совет Федерации и Гос. дума избирают из своего состава председателей и их
заместителей, образуют комитеты и комиссии, проводят по вопросам своего
ведения парламентские слушания. Каждая из палат принимает свой регламент и
решает вопросы внутреннего распорядка своей деятельности. Для осуществления
контроля за исполнением федерального бюджета Совет Федерации и Гос. дума
образуют Счётную палату РФ, состав и порядок деятельности которой
определяются Федеральным законом «О Счётной палате РФ» (1995). Члены Совета Федерации и депутаты Гос. думы обладают неприкосновенностью в течение всего срока
их полномочий: они не могут быть задержаны, арестованы, подвергнуты обыску
(кроме случаев задержания на месте преступления), а также подвергнуты личному
досмотру, за исключением случаев, когда это предусмотрено федеральным законом
для обеспечения безопасности др. людей. Вопрос о лишении их неприкосновенности
решается по представлению Генерального прокурора РФ соответствующей палатой
Федерального собрания. К ведению Совета Федерации относятся: утверждение
изменения границ между субъектами РФ; утверждение указов Президента РФ о
введении военного или чрезвычайного положения; решение вопросов о возможности
использования Вооружённых сил РФ за пределами территории РФ; назначение
выборов Президента РФ; отрешение Президента РФ от должности; назначение на
должность судей Конституционного суда РФ, Верховного суда РФ, Высшего
арбитражного суда РФ; назначение на должность и освобождение от
должности Генерального прокурора РФ, заместителя председателя Счётной палаты
РФ и половины состава его аудиторов. Совет Федерации принимает постановления
по вопросам, отнесённым к его ведению Конституцией РФ, большинством голосов
от общего числа членов Совета Федерации, если иной порядок принятия решений
не предусмотрен Конституцией РФ. Part 2 LEGISLATURE Government by definition is civil government
of a sovereign state which can be local, national, or international. Its main
purpose is to maintain social order and protect the citizens and property
within the constitutional boundaries of its governance. There are 195
countries in the world and 123 of those are democratic states as is the UK
(ONS). A democratic government is created by way of citizens of a particular
state voting for whom they wish to govern; this is in comparison to socialist
dictatorship’s that do not allow its citizens to participate within the
political system. Even though the UK government is democratically voted in to
power there is a need for that government to be adhering to rules and
regulations and be answerable for its actions and policies. With this said
there needs to be a way of ensuring that the majority party in power is scrutinised, examined and certifiably fit for purpose and
are not acting in a totalitarian manner irreverently discarding duties and
abusing its position of power. This can be done by creating checks and
balances. The checks and balances are a system for
separation of powers, or to be precise a system of shared power. It is there
to make sure that no one group or branch of government can have exclusive
control. Government in the UK is made up of executive branch (Prime
Minister), legislature (House of Commons and House of Lords) and judiciary
(the Courts). Each of the three branches has their own powers to check the
action of the other branches. The executive branch is the Prime minister. As
head of the majority party s/he has the ability to appoint ministers to
his/her cabinet, implement policies and get legislation passed without too
much difficulty. The PM is also the main
spokesperson for government and has the authority to exercise powers of the
crown without consulting parliament. This however does not make the PM all
powerful and the main check on the Prime Minister's power comes from the
British people. Voting in a general election is the key check with an
un-popular PM and his government being ousted from power. The PM can also be
ousted by members of his/her own party via a vote of no-confidence. This also
applies to the government in general. If a government suffers a vote of
confidence resolution compels the government to resign and a general election
to be called, this happened to the Callaghan Government of 1979. The governing majority party is kept in
check by those from other parties, the opposition. Prime ministers question
time is an example of open debate where the PM and his government are
accountable to parliament as a whole. In addition to this the opposition gets
several days per Parliamentary session to hold debates on subjects of their
choosing. Parliamentary procedures are designed to scrutinise
legislative proposals and the government will not always get its own way,
PACE 1984 was substantially altered due to pressure from MPs from all sides. The UK government is Asymmetrical
Bicameralism, meaning that there are two chambers of parliament, the Commons
and The House of Lords. The House of Commons exercises more power than the
House of Lords, prior to 1997 each house had equal
power. The House of Commons use the Lords as an advisory medium and passes
legislative proposals through for ratification. The House of Lords can amend
and delay most legislative Bills for up to one year before the Parliament
Acts 1911 & 1949 take effect (bypassing the Lords and going straight to
the Queen for the Royal Assent). Instead of having its proposals being
obstructed by The Lords government may favour a
compromise to its proposals or bow to amendments made by the House of Lords.
This shows the legislature holding the executive to account. Outside of main parliament there are other
influences exerted that help to shape policy and keep those with power up to
date and in check with public opinion. Pressure and interest groups each have
a vital role to play. The aim a pressure/interest group is to influence the
people who actually have the power to make decisions. Being part of such a
group is a way for the ordinary man in the street to be involved within the
political landscape and actually make a difference by campaigning for
whatever reason the group has been set up. Such groups can make a difference
by standing alone but have far better chance of being taken seriously by
being part of policy networks. Policy networks bring together powerful state
ministers with non-state political actors in order to thrash out issues that
are felt should be part of government policy. Such networks use bargaining in
order to shape and influence policy. It is an ideal arena for interest groups
to get their say and visa-versa it is essential for
government to be in tune with the populous that voted them in and such
networks should be viewed as an arena for them to see if current policies are
working and what needs to change in order for on-going progress to be made.
Pressure groups are sometimes able to gather sufficient support to force
government to amend or even scrap legislation; one such example was in 1998
when 300,000 supporters of the countryside alliance marched in London in
protest against the then Labour government’s new
rural policies. The magnitude of support resulted in the creation of the
Ministry of Rural Affairs. It would also be fair to say at this point that
the assistance of the media in such instances also help to keep government in
check. A poor performing government or ill thought out policy making is very
often lambasted and take up many columns of national press. Whilst no
newspaper campaigns can be singled out as being instrumental in ousting a government
from power it can be said that their influence on public opinion cannot be
discounted. However the media coverage of the 2009 expenses scandal clearly
indicates the potency of the media when there is a clear abuse of power and
was pivotal in ensuring the accountability of government ministers. The two houses of parliament coupled with
the judiciary, policy networks, pressure/interest groups and media all assist
in balancing power and ensure that government is kept accountable for its
actions. In order for a system of direct democracy to properly function it
relies on citizen participation, a factor that the UK has been seen in
decline for some time. However participation is the ultimate check.
Government from the centre in unitary systems has always hindered the wider
spectrum of checking and balancing. In recent years we have seen additional
de-centralisation of power with devolution in
Scotland, the Welsh assembly and in Northern Ireland. Moving powers to local
areas increases the need for accountability and thus creates new checks and
further reduces the instances of one party having a stranglehold and becoming
all powerful. Some very important legislative and policy changes can also be
dealt with by way of referendum allowing the public to vote on significant
changes to issues such as continued integration within the European Union
that may result is loss of sovereignty or conversion to the Euro from the
Pound. The UK has, under The Constitutional Reform
Act 2005, taken the legislature away from the law lords and created a Supreme
Court away from Parliament. It also removed the Lord Chancellor from Judicial
and removed him/her from being speaker for the House of Lords. This indicates
government responding to the need for continued constitutional change and
separation of powers by formulating judicial independence away from
government with no political affiliations. The continued evolution within
constitutional reform in the UK, evident since the late 17th Century, has
resulted in more checks and balances in recent history. In my opinion there
are many ways in which government is held accountable for its actions even
though there is still overlapping of the three branches of government and no
formal separation between them. The acceptance of the Human Rights Act 1998
has further seen dilution of centralised power in
the UK and ended the Home Secretary’s role in criminal sentencing it also
allows judges to check the executive in judicial review cases increasing
culpability of the executive and ensures that the executive does not exceed
the powers with which it has been bestowed by parliament. However with more
and more powers being transferred to the European Union via the Lisbon Treaty
2009 are we not in a situation where we stand the risk of being governed by
an unelected three-tier centralised executive in
Brussels? After all the hard work of separating powers and implementing
checks and balances over the past 300 years we may risk inadvertently taking
several steps backwards. Each parliamentary year, the Cabinet has to
decide on what it wishes to do regarding legislation that year. As such it
has to prioritise what it wants –
though it has to be wary of
promises made to the public at large. A parliamentary session does not last
for one calendar year. With extended recesses, Parliament actually sits for a
lot less than twelve months. Each parliamentary year, the government has time
for perhaps no more than twenty major bills. As these absorb the bulk of
Parliament’s time, there is little time left for Private Members’ Bills etc. Legislation in Parliament is driven by what
is said in the Queen’s Speech that traditionally opens Parliament in
November. Once a decision has been taken by the government to introduce
whatever form of legislation it wants, a potentially convoluted process takes
place before the bill becomes law. The first process is one of formulation.
This is actually deciding what is going to be contained in that bill. Both
ministers and civil servants acting on behalf of the government do this
process. In fact, in many instances, the details of a bill are left to
experts within a civil service department who are there to work for the
government. Parliamentary Counsels (government lawyers) are responsible for
actually drafting the bill. Before words are put to paper, a period of
consultation occurs. Either a «Green» Paper or a «White» Paper is published
and members of the public are invited to comment on future bills using these
papers as a basis for discussion and contact with their MP if they feel that
this is necessary. What is the difference between a White and a
Green Paper? A Green Paper is an exploratory one that is
designed to stimulate discussion amongst a wide audience. A White Paper is a
statement of where the government wishes to go in the sense that it is fairly
definite in what it thinks is required. If the issue is very much an open
one, a Green Paper usually comes before a White Paper to allow for an
expansive debate on the issue. One single issue can have both a Green and a
White Paper released on it so that the public can have an insight into what
the government wants but also has access to a document that presents an
across-the-board selection of arguments. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
If the 1)___________
want a bill to pass, it is in their interest to ensure that all the areas
that need to be analysed have been. Therefore,
extensive consultations are carried out to ensure that what the government 2)___________, comes into being. For a bill that is deemed
by the government to be important, many groups are consulted: 3)___________,
Treasury officials if there are major monetary implications, trade union
leaders especially, if there are employment issues at stake, MP’s, trade organisations etc. To allow for full public consultation, a
draft bill might be 4)___________ to allow the
public at large (and the Parliamentary opposition!) to see what the effective
final act 5)___________ be. Prior to
1997, releasing a bill in draft form was quite rare. However, since 1997,
this has become more and more 6)___________. In one
sense, this process is seen as the government being more responsive to the
people and giving the 7)___________ the opportunity
of making the government responsible to them rather than the other way round. Only after a bill has been drafted and
agreed on by ministers, does it go to the House of Commons for its first
reading. After so much 8)___________
work, the bill that goes before the House of Commons cannot be considered a
mere «rough draft». It is a lot more than this. Even at this seemingly early
stage of its «life», the 9)___________ is what the
government wants to become law. If a government has a large parliamentary 10)___________ in the House, a bill, even on its first
reading, frequently passes with relative ease (assuming that it is not a
controversial one) and with few, in any, amendments to it. The First Reading is the first time that a
bill goes before the House itself. The First Reading is, in fact, when a bill
is introduced after which the bill is then put into print. Though the 11)___________ «First Reading» conjures up the image of a
big parliamentary event, it is really the opposite in that nothing actually 12)___________
other than the fact a bill goes before Parliament. As the bill is not in a
printed format at this time, MP’s 13)___________ do
little about assessing content etc. From this purely formal introduction, the
bill then gets a Second Reading. By the 14)___________ of the Second Reading,
MP’s have access to the detail of the bill and it is in the Second Reading
that MP’s have the chance for a wide-ranging discussion on a bill’s merits or
otherwise. Usually, though not 15)___________, a
parliamentary day is )___________ over to a Second Reading, which usually
corresponds to about six hours of discussion. More controversial bills have
been known to be given 16)___________ days of
parliamentary time – about eighteen
hours. Traditionally, a government minister opens a
Second Reading while his/her opposite number on the Opposition Benches
replies. From here, backbench MP’s join in the debate. When it 17)___________ to closing the Second Reading, the minister
concerned does this. The debate in the House in controlled by either the
Speaker of the Deputy Speaker. Controversial bills may proceed to a vote at a
Second Reading. It is almost certain that a government with a decent
Parliamentary majority will win this as the bill 18)_________
what that government wants and the party whips would ensure that a smooth
vote takes place. From the Second Reading, the bill moves onto to the
Committee Stage. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Судебная власть – это самостоятельная независимая ветвь государственной
власти, осуществляемая судами, которые выполняют возложенные на них законом
полномочия посредством установленного судопроизводства. В соответствии с
Конституцией РФ судебная власть осуществляется посредством конституционного,
гражданского, административного и уголовного судопроизводства. Как вид власти судебную власть теоретически нельзя отождествлять с
судами, судебной системой. Судебной властью надлежит считать не орган (суд)
или должностное лицо, а то, что они могут и в состоянии сделать, какими для
этого способностями и возможностями обладают. Одна из важнейших функций судебной власти – осуществление правосудия, т. е. производимой
в процессуальном порядке правоприменительной деятельности суда по рассмотрению
и разрешению гражданских, административных и уголовных дел, а также
экономических споров в целях охраны прав и интересов граждан, организаций и
государства. Контролирующие полномочия судебной власти реализуются в первую очередь
в форме контроля за соответствием федеральных
законов, законов субъектов РФ и нормативных актов всех уровней положениям
Конституции РФ, осуществляемым Конституционным Судом РФ. Широко
осуществляется нормоконтроль и судами общей
юрисдикции всех уровней. Контролирующие функции судебной власти реализуются также в форме контроля за законностью решений местных представительных и
всех исполнительных органов, в государственном управлении путем: •рассмотрения жалоб граждан и организаций на действия и решения органов
(должностных лиц), нарушения их прав и свобод, жалоб и протестов на
постановления по делам об административных правонарушениях; •проверки при рассмотрении уголовных дел качества предварительного
расследования; •рассмотрения жалоб и протестов о признании незаконными
правовых актов управления; •проверки при рассмотрении уголовных, гражданских, административных дел
законности и дисциплины в деятельности органов, организаций и их должностных
лиц, законности правовых актов управления, имеющих значение для разрешения
дела. Контрольная деятельность также представляет собой: •обеспечение исполнения приговоров, иныхсудебных
решений; •разбирательство и решение дел об административных правонарушениях
подведомственным судам; •разъяснение действующего законодательства по вопросам судебной
практики; •реализацию Верховным Судом РФ права законодательной инициативы. Контроль за законностью и обоснованностью действий
и решений всех исполнительных органов и органов государственного управления,
правоохранительных органов в процессе выявления и раскрытия преступлений,
задержания подозреваемых в совершении преступлений, их ареста, совершения
действий, связанных с ограничением права гражданина на тайну переписки,
телефонных переговоров, почтовых и иных сообщений, а также права на
неприкосновенность жилища, правомерность прекращения уголовных дел и т. д.,
свидетельствуют о том, что судебная власть – равновесная ветвь среди других ветвей
государственной власти. Part 3 EXECUTIVE The personnel that handles the day running
of the country and provide leadership in terms of the direction of government
policy and responses to events. Headed by the PM but also includes cabinet
ministers, junior ministers, members of the senior ranks of the civil service
and informally specialist advisors. By definition executive will usually
command a majority in the Commons (either single party or part of a coalition
– current
example 2010 Con Dem Coalition) unless it is a caretaker/ minority administration
– based on concept of a fusion of
legislative and executive branches of government and powers. Ministers must
be in Parliament, large majority MPs but outside experts can be brought in by
being given a peerage. The Prime Minister Performs 3 key roles – leader of nation,
head of government, and usually party leader (note the latter 2 can
conflict). Basis of powers around royal prerogative that by convention
unchecked by legislature. Note Brown’s proposals to open this up already
established convention of Commons votes prior to troop deployment (following
on from 2003 Iraq vote). Formal powers – appointment (ministers,
peers, senior civil servants, bishops and veto on senior judges – note
Cameron and need to consult Clegg on Lib Dem appointments), signing foreign
treaties and deploying troops abroad and heading cabinet. Note that power of
dissolution has been suspended by Fixed Term Parliament Act. Not formally
limited checks on these but in reality political pressures can limit scope
for movement (e.g. cabinet appointment and reshuffles and parliamentary
ratification of treaties). Degree of authority (informal powers) can impact
upon exercise of PM power affected by public opinion, size of government
majority and government and party unity. Compare Blair pre Iraq with post
Iraq especially 2005 and also limits on Brown’s leadership (no direct mandate
etc.). Cameron, without single party parliamentary majority lacks the «mandate»
of other PMs. Models of PM power (not formally part of
syllabus) explain why some PMs are presidential in style (Blair and Thatcher –
see Foley and Crossman) but others more collegiate (Major and Brown – see
Jones) and some place emphasis on flexibility (Norton – personality and circumstance or King
cycles of public opinion). Use evidence from the last 5 PMs to illustrate use
of or limits on PM power. Note the special circumstances of Cameron, his
relationship with Clegg and the difficulty of managing a coalition. The Cabinet Central executive coordinating committee
consisting of Ministers of state for each department and other senior
government figures such as the Chief Whip and Leader of the Lords. Note
Burch’s 4 key functions confirmation, coordination, arbitration and
information sum up more specific role (some informal such as check on PM
power). Relationship with PM debate over rise of
presidential power resulting in decline of cabinet government – note no formal constitutional change to the
role of cabinet but extension in style of government (expansion of the
central executive territory – Marwick)
and in particular the power base of the PM (increased use of special advisors
and sofa style government, bi-lateral meetings used by Blair and replicated
by Cameron), also increasing personalisation of
politics with media focus on PM. Cabinet meetings – number and length declined with PM still
having capacity to set agenda sum up mood of meeting without a vote, steer
contentious policies through cabinet committees. However cabinet
constitutionally can overall PM («first among equals) and face them down (see
Thatcher ERM and eventual pressure not to stand in 2nd ballot). Note also
relationship not opposite – strong PM will have united and
supportive cabinet behind them and a weak PM may suffer further from a
divided and incompetent cabinet team. Note the way PMs operate according to
circumstances (Cameron’s use of the «Quad» for economic decisions outside of
full cabinet). Collective responsibility – based on Ministerial
code of Conduct applies to all ministers including most junior (also similar
policy amongst shadow cabinet). Designed to present government unity in which
all must abide by decision agreed in cabinet. When unable to must resign (see
Iraq and more recently ministerial resignations over style of Brown
government). Convention undermined by off the record briefings (e.g.Vince Cable over business plans), agreements to
differ and free votes (AV referendum). Give examples! Ministers and civil service Role of Senior Civil Servants – primarily policy
advising with duty based on the principles of permanence, neutrality and
anonymity. Armstrong memorandum deemed their public service is as is defined
by the incumbent government. This has been changed and the new Code for Civil
Servants 2002 is more relevant. Relationship with ministers – Minister has
ultimate advantage of making the final decision setting the agenda, use of
personal advisors and utilising the political
weight of the government, however civil servants do have advantage of greater
experience, gate keeping , single focus and
numerical weight of numbers. Number of models about relationship ranging from
traditional service, left wing partisan bias and «Yes Minster» bureaucratic.
Nature of relationship has changed considerably. Highlight role of chief
executives and the lack of anonymity (Theresa May’s relations with Brodie Clarke at Border Agency) and increasing politicisation (Gove’s appointment at DFE leading to
resignation of 4 leading civil servants in that dept, etc). Individual Ministerial Responsibility – another
convention stemming from ministerial code of conduct. Ministers are
politically accountable for the actions of their department(
role responsibility) and their own conduct (personal responsibility). This
accountability addressed through answering to Parliament (e.g. questions and
committees) for their actions and those of their department, apologising for mistakes made and ultimately resignation.
Convention seen to be undermined by hiving off responsibility to chief
executives of executive agencies or civil servants (blaming policy delivery
not formulation) or hiding behind collective responsibility. Note ministerial
resignations mainly based around personal responsibility where loses confidence
of PM (media and political pressure). Once again learn examples for each and
DO NOT confuse with collective responsibility. Key developments Try and use contemporary examples for PM
power and cabinet relations – note
Brown’s difficulties including Gurkha defeat and
threat of defeat over part-privatisation of Post
Office (Cameron hasn’t lost any parliamentary votes yet but rebellions from
Lib Dems over tuition fees and threat from Tory
back benchers over House of Lords reform). Also be aware of potential
challenges in light of electoral setbacks (note My 3rd Council election
results) and criticism from back benchers (e.g. Nadine Dorris’
out of touch posh boys comment). You must refer to the coalition government
and the difficulties facing Cameron in achieving a consensus on divisive
issues (Osborne’s negotiations over the 2012 budget show difficulties of «two
party» government). Resignations are also more awkward (Clegg’s decision over
replacement for David Laws) and the hire/fire powers of PM have been
affected. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
The executive branch of 1)___________
is that branch with exclusive power and responsibility for the everyday
administration of the country. This branch implements the law. The
distribution of power into 2)___________ branches of
government is 3)___________ to the initiative of division of power. In some
parts of the world (countries) the term executive 4)___________
to the government. Though, this practice fails to make a distinction between
authoritarian and autonomous 5)___________ of the
government. In the despotic systems (autocracy or complete dominion) where
the diverse powers of government are 6)___________
by one person (small oligarchy) the executive branch stops to subsist in view
of the fact that there is no other 7)___________ with which to divide up
separate but equivalent governmental powers. The division of powers system is
premeditated to allocate authority away from the 8)___________
branch. This is an effort to protect individual 9)___________
in reply to autocratic leadership throughout history. The executive officer
is not hypothetical to create laws or construe them. Their chief role is to
put into effect the laws as printed by the 10)___________
branch (legislature) and 11)___________ by the judicial branch. The head of
this branch is President of United States of America. This branch also
comprises of many departments (sub departments) and agencies. Bureaucracy in United States refers to the
executive branch of government. The congress has it
own 12)___________, bureaucratic personnel that
makes their budgets etc. The executive branch of United States consists of
agencies and departments that receive inclinations from the President. The
President (principal bureaucrat) is the directorial 13)___________
of executive branch. The lack of precise, exhaustive words in the
Constitution unfolding the influence and responsibilities of the executive
branch has specified President of United States an immense deal of suppleness
to 14)___________ its dimension and capacity over the years. This flexibility
is in stipulations of both the assortment of its power and the amount of
departments and agencies engaged to 15)___________
its tasks. President is chosen every four years, and decides his/her vice
president as a administration 16) ___________. The president is
also serves as the commander-in-chief of the U.S. Armed Forces and is for all
intents and purposes the 17)___________ in charge of
the country. Once in a year the President must convey a State of the Union
address to Congress, He may propose legislation to Congress, he may assemble
Congress. He also has the 18)___________ to hire
ambassadors to other countries. He has the power to select justices of
Supreme Court and other federal judges. To 19)___________
and put into effect the laws of the United States he is expected with his
Cabinet and other agencies. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Исполнительная власть – один из
трех видов власти в странах с ее разделением. Конституция РФ содержит
утверждение, что государственная власть в России разделяется на законодательную, исполнительную и судебную (Ст. 10). В
чем различие этих трех видов власти и чем конкретно занимается каждая из них?
Как выглядит структура каждого из названных видов власти в нашей стране?
Сегодня в нашей статье речь пойдет об исполнительной власти. Если с судебной властью все более или менее понятно (судебную власть
составляет система судебных органов страны, в которые входят Верховный суд
РФ, суды общей юрисдикции, арбитражные и конституционные суды), то с
остальными двумя видами все обстоит не так просто. Законодательная власть – власть в области законодательства. Ею
управляет отдельный орган, занимающийся разработкой законодательства. В РФ
законодательная власть осуществляется Федеральным Собранием. Оно состоит из
двух палат – верхней
и нижней. Верхняя называется Совет Федерации. Нижняя
– Государственная дума РФ. В субъектах
России законодательная власть осуществляется Законодательными собраниями. Исполнительная власть – одна из самостоятельных и независимых публичных
властей в государстве. Реализуется как совокупность полномочий по управлению
государственными делами, то есть представляет структуру органов,
осуществляющих эти полномочия. Система власти в РФ Органами исполнительной власти осуществляется ее реализация. Это, как
правило, назначаемые органы. Главная задача исполнительных органов власти – выполнять положения Конституции, федеральных
законов, иных нормативных актов. Исполнительная власть и законодательная
власть должны быть строго разделены, чтобы не оказывать влияние друг на
друга. Субъекты исполнительной власти С учетом федеративного устройства России выделяются следующие субъекты
исполнительной власти: 1) Российская Федерация как демократическое федеративное государство,
суверенитет которого распространяется на всю территорию РФ; 2) равноправные субъекты РФ: республики, края, области, города
федерального значения, автономная область, автономные округа. С точки зрения осуществления государственного управления субъектами
исполнительной власти в Российской Федерации являются: 1) Президент
Российской Федерации; 2) Правительство Российской Федерации; 3) федеральные
органы исполнительной власти (федеральные министерства, федеральные службы и
федеральные агентства); 4) территориальные органы федеральных органов
исполнительной власти; 5) главы исполнительной власти субъектов Российской
Федерации (президенты, главы администраций); 6) правительства субъектов
Российской Федерации; 7) иные органы исполнительной власти субъектов
Российской Федерации. Part 4 MILITARY
AND POLICE They maintain order, but try to forgo force. One day they’re
investigating a crime. The next they’re providing area security in a combat
zone. Skilled at switching between roles in public order and war, military
police have become leading players in the Army’s war on terrorism. So
essential are MPs on today’s battlefield that recruits attending the Military
Police School at Fort Leonard Wood, Mo., are almost certain to deploy from
their first duty stations. «Most of them are only 18 or 19
years old, but these Soldiers know there’s a war going on. We’re putting them
through the most stressful situations allowed so they’ll be ready», said CPT Douglas
Clay, company commander for a recent class of trainees. The minimum age to enter civilian law enforcement is typically 21.
It’s just 18 for those committing to Uncle Sam. SFC Mark Ford, the school’s
operations branch chief, said age doesn’t equal the degree of responsibility
given to military police, who he believes bear more responsibility than their
civilian counterparts. «Law and order are just part of their five-piece mission. Their jobs
can change focus daily, and they have to be flexible. But being multipurpose
is what most of them enjoy about their jobs», Ford said. Military police have the choice of two occupational specialties: basic
combat support MP and corrections specialist. Training for each specialty
lasts nine weeks, much of it at Fort Leonard Wood’s Stem Village, a mock town
featuring confinement facilities, residential structures, a bank and a
theater. Law-enforcement training starts with instruction on Miranda rights and
military law, then proceeds to evidence collection,
search and apprehension, police reports and forms, vehicle inspection,
traffic directing and convoy escorts, interrogations and interviews, and
response to such incidents as suicide attempts, rape, damage to private
property and domestic abuse. MPs specializing in corrections branch off to hone skills they’ll need
for running correctional and confinement facilities like the U.S. Army
Confinement Facility-Europe at Coleman Barracks in Mannheim, Germany. Topics
include the Army’s correctional system, custody and confinement procedures,
and prisoner administration. Whether assigned to a police station, a confinement facility or
deployed to a combat zone, MPs must know how to give verbal commands, and
conduct prone-position and wall searches. The ability to use force can seem a
necessity for MPs, who may need to physically restrain perpetrators. But it’s technique – not strength or violence – that
they use to control subjects. «Unarmed self-defense is all about executing the right moves and striking
in the right places. Body size and strength have nothing to do with it», said drill
sergeant SSG Michael Baker. And though handcuffing may appear simple, Soldiers spend hours
learning how and where to place handcuffs on both compliant and noncompliant
subjects. «When we apprehend someone, we’re liable for their safety», Ford said. Instruction on urban warfare, for example, has gone from one day to
four. Rising populations and urban growth make it essential, instructors
said. «At some level, we’re always going to have boots on the ground, and
we’re always going to need to fight and survive in cities – no
matter what job specialty Soldiers have», said CPT Chris Heberer,
instructor for the MP Officer Basic Course. Half the challenge of urban warfare is being prepared for all the
variables. The other half is anticipating what will be on the other side of
the door getting kicked down, or whether the enemy will lurk around the next
corner or hover on a rooftop. MPs providing security and reconnaissance
operations in Iraq have also encouraged the addition of mobile-fire training.
Beyond qualification on the 9mm pistol, recruits now head to the range to
practice firing Mk. 19 grenade launchers and M-249s machine guns from atop moving vehicles. «We’re shoulder to shoulder with combat-arms Soldiers», Heberer said. «Commanders are realizing that we have a
lot of knowledge and expertise to contribute, and that an MP platoon brings
an incredible amount of firepower to the battle». They can also be a less threatening presence than tanks and infantry.
It’s their subdued yet persuasive presence most Army planners value on the
battlefield. The media’s spotlight on the abuse of enemy prisoners of war at the
U.S.– controlled Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq last
spring shocked most MPs, said SSG John Fair, who teaches EPW handling to
recruits. But trainees are as confident as ever, he said. «We’re here to learn everything we can about doing our jobs as
professionally as possible», said PV2 Richard Carpenter of himself
and classmates. «We haven’t let the bad press or the actions of a few bad
Soldiers affect us». While the initial encounter between MPs and EPWs can be hostile,
trainees are taught to let up on force once prisoners are seized and under
control. They learn to treat prisoners respectfully – the
same way MPs are expected to treat military members apprehended in garrison
environments. MPs are also responsible for feeding and clothing EPWs. And in the
case of an attack, they must also defend prisoners. The Army’s focus on the
treatment of EPWs has not changed since last spring’s controversy, Fair said. «The doctrine has not changed. The mission has not changed, and
training has not changed». «It’s not often that you get a
young adult of 18 with the authority that a military police Soldier has», said COL George Millan, director of training at the MP school. «It takes
someone with maturity and common sense in dealing with people». MPs took a high-profile role in the war soon after the terrorist attack
on Sept. 11, 2001. The New York National Guard’s 442nd MP Company, for
example, contributed to rescue-and-recovery efforts at the World Trade Center
following the attack. The unit also provided security in New York City’s mass
transit systems. And last April, the 442nd’s Soldiers returned from a year of
duty in Iraq, where they trained Iraqi police. «Law enforcement is something most of us do every day because we have
a large number of civilian police officers in the unit», said company commander CPT Sean
O’Donnell. «Most Iraqis had heard about the NYPD, so they wanted to learn as
much from us as they could. Our experience enabled us to provide some of the
most current training available». The demand for MPs on the battlefield and in garrison has been taxing
for active-duty and reservecomponent Soldiers.
Thousands of Guard and Reserve members in artillery units have been
reclassified as MPs and stationed at bases throughout the United States and
Germany, while active-duty MPs remain in Iraq. The Army has also enacted the
Stop-Loss Program to keep active– and reserve-component
MPs from dropping off the rolls. Future plans for the MP Corps include the creation of entire companies
that specialize in detainee operations. «This need goes back to Afghanistan, where we found that we just
didn’t have enough Soldiers with that type of skill set», Millan
said. And as missions change, so will training. New batches of instructors
will arrive from deployments around the globe, and their experiences will
shape course development. «New instructors will come to us with the knowledge of what the
textbooks tell us to do, as well as what Soldiers are actually doing in war,
where they’re updating tactics on the move», Heberer said. «We’ll
continue to incorporate those lessons learned to save lives». «An MP’s job can be stressful with so much responsibility entrusted to
him», O’Donnell
said. «MPs must make decisions on an independent basis, and not rely on being
steered by leaders». «It’s not just a sense of authority that attracts men and women to the
MP Corps», O’Donnell
said. «We’re all common in the sense that we want to help and serve others.
We’re selfless by choice». EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
The White House will 1)_________ a 2015 ban
on police forces getting riot gear, armored vehicles and other military-grade
equipment from the U.S. armed forces, two police organization 2)_________
told Reuters on Thursday. Shortly 3)_________ the recent shooting
deaths of police officers, President Barack Obama agreed to review each
banned item, the two law 4)_________ leaders said. That could result in changes to the ban
imposed in May 2015 on the transfer of some 5)_________ from the military to
police, said Jim Pasco, executive director of the Fraternal Order of Police,
and Bill Johnson, executive 6)_________ of the National Association of Police
Organizations. Last year's ban 7)_________ after a public
outcry over police in cities, such as Ferguson, Missouri, using
military-grade riot gear and 8)_________ vehicles during protests against
police brutality. Both Pasco and Johnson were 9)_________ eight police organization chiefs who met with
Obama and Vice President Joe Biden at the White House on July 11. That was
three days after a shooter 10)_________ and killed
five police officers in Dallas. Following the meeting, three officers were
killed in Baton Rouge on July 17. A White House official said the 11)_________
regularly reviews what military equipment can be transferred to police and
that current rules ensure police get «the tools that they need to 12)_________
themselves and their 13)_________ while at the same time providing the level
of accountability that should go along with the provision of federal
equipment». Pictures of police in riot 14)_________ and driving armored vehicles toward peaceful
protesters sparked a national debate that drew 15)_________ to a program used
by the U.S. military to unload its excess equipment on local police. At last week's meeting, 16)_________
enforcement leaders urged Obama to reinstate military equipment such as
helmets, grenade launchers and 17)_________ armored vehicles to enhance
officers' safety and their ability to respond to violent riots. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Крупные силы мексиканской армии введены в штат Мичоакан
на западе страны для борьбы с наркоторговцами. Более пяти тысяч вооруженных
автоматами военнослужащих установили блокпосты на всех дорогах штата. Проводятся аресты сотрудников муниципальной полиции, которых
подозревают в связях с наркоторговцами. Губернатор Мичоакана
выразил протест против того, что он назвал «военной оккупацией» штата. Мичоакан уже долгое время служит перевалочным пунктом для
транзита южноамериканского кокаина в США. Поводом для начала крупнейшей
войсковой операции стали совершенные на прошлой неделе нападения банд
наркоторговцев на 10 городов. Кроме того расследуется убийство 12 федеральных
агентов, чьи тела были найдены около крупной автотрассы. Власти подозревают в
причастности к их пыткам и убийству местных полицейских, связанных
действующей в Мичоакане группировкой
наркоторговцев, известной как «Семья». Арестованы 10 муниципальных
полицейских, также взяты под стражу мэры 10 городов штата. |