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CONTENTS UNIT
1. AN INTRODUCTION TO LAWS UNIT
3. CHALLENGES OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM UNIT
7.CIVIL PROCEDURE AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
CIVIL PROCEDURE AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE UNIT
12. A LAW FIRM STRUCTURE AND PRACTISE UNIT
14. IMPRISONMENT: RETRIBUTION OR REHIBILITATION |
UNIT 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO LAWS Part 1 WHAT IS A LAW? Laws are rules, regulations and restrictions that apply to all members
of society. Laws define how people should behave or conduct themselves, and
provide sanctions and deterrents against improper and destructive behaviour. Laws help to organise
our societies, maintain order, ensure our safety and prevent infringements of
our rights. Without laws, societies would descend into lawlessness, anarchy
and violence. In a democratic society, laws are created by representatives of
the people (parliaments) and independent judges and magistrates (courts).
There are two types of laws: criminal law, which deals with offences against
people, property and morality, and civil law, which deals with disputes
between different parties. Where people live together or gather in numbers they usually agree on
rules about conduct and procedures. They do this so that the group may better
achieve its objectives and to ensure the rights of its individual members are
respected and protected. Schools have rules specifically for these purposes,
as do social groups such as clubs and sporting teams. Families too might have
rules, determined by parents or guardians, to ensure the safety and security
of younger members. Society has certain unwritten rules that reflect social
and cultural values, such as an expectation that individuals display courtesy
and good manners, observe things like queues and keep to the left on
escalators. A law is the highest form of rule and protects individuals by
determining what is acceptable behaviour and conduct.
Laws are considered a fundamental element of civilised
society: maintaining order, ensuring good conduct and protecting the human
and civil rights of individuals. Without a system of laws, society would most
likely degenerate into disorder and anarchy. Decisions in lawless societies
are generally made by individuals or groups who have the strength or power to
coerce others. The 1980 Australian movie Mad Max (see picture) was set in a
fuel-depleted society where law and order had begun to dissolve, and areas
outside the cities were ruled by armed motorcycle gangs, the most powerful of
which was headed by the eponymous «Toecutter». Laws
exist primarily to halt this descent into chaos, violence and anarchy. In societies like Australia, which is a liberal democracy, laws are
determined by institutions, not by individuals. Collectively, these
institutions are considered to represent the state. Even in a society which
operates according to the rule of law, much depends on the trust and consent
of the people. The population generally accepts the need for laws and obeys
them willingly. The state lacks the power and the resources to enforce and
uphold laws if large numbers of citizens willfully disobey them. As citizens,
we agree to abide by certain rules and surrender our absolute freedoms – and
in return our lives and our rights are protected by the state and its laws.
The French philosopher Rousseau, who lived in the mid 1700s, described this
as the social contract. The law is fundamentally important – but it is not perfect. The law is
only as fair and effective as those who develop, implement and oversee it.
Charles Dickens once noted that «the law is an ass» while Martin Luther King
correctly observed that «everything that Hitler did in Germany was «legal». The
law is not above debate, criticism or challenge. The law must be flexible,
receptive to suggested reform and capable of change. As people and society
changes, so too must the law. The rule of law is the principle that every person – regardless of
their rank, status or office – is subject to the same laws and the
same legal and judicial processes. To put it another way, just as citizens
must obey the law, so too must governments. Neither the king, nor the king’s
ministers, nor the government’s officials are above the law; no person can
ignore or subvert the law or act with arbitrary power. The rule of law is
also concerned with the legality of the actions of executive government. It
requires the executive government and its agents and agencies – such as the
military, the police and security agencies – follow fair procedures and
respect the rights of citizens. The ideal of the rule of law is ancient. It is explained in
Aristotle’s Politics (Book III, chapter 16). In England, the idea that the
king is also subject to laws of the land has its origin in the Magna Carta of 1215. The signing of the Magna Carta was ground breaking: for the first time in English
history a written law curtailed the arbitrary power of a king. That law also
extended rights and protections for all Britons, not just the barons who had
grievances with the king. Its mythology notwithstanding, the Magna Carta fell considerably short of the rule of law. The
original Magna Carta stood for only two months
before it was repudiated by King John and annulled by the pope, Innocent III.
Although still subject to the law, the king retained the authority to change
the law himself. The rule of law did not become entrenched in the Westminster system of
government until the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This was preceded by 85
years of argument between the Stuart monarchs and the parliament and common
law jurists (notably Sir Edward Coke) over the divine right of kings, their
claim to rule as they please. Under the Bill of Rights passed in 1689, the
king was forbidden from suspending or dispensing with laws passed by
parliament or imposing taxes without parliamentary consent. He was forbidden
from establishing his own courts or acting as a judge himself. The rule of law is a cornerstone of democratic societies. The rule of
law is not enshrined in the Australian Constitution or other legislation, nevertheless it is an important foundation
for Australia’s system of government. The principle of the rule of law has
been cited in a number of High Court judgements. On
January 1st 2001, the centenary of Australia’s Federation, prime minister
John Howard was asked what he would nominate as some of the great
achievements of the past century. Mr Howard began
his reply: «Well I think the maintenance of democracy and the rule of law for
100 years». There are some anomalies that suggest the rule of law is not fully
applied in Australia. One is what lawyers call the «shield of the Crown».
This refers to privileges and immunities enjoyed by the Crown, its
representatives, officers and agents. Most of the ancient privileges and
immunities of the crown have been abolished by various parliaments,
however a few privileges and immunities remain, including the principle that
legislation does not bind the Crown, except by express words or implication.
In plain English, the government can itself ignore legislation unless it
contains the statement: «this Act binds the Crown». Another anomaly is the
use of privative clauses in Federal and State legislation, which restrict or
remove the right of judicial review for decisions of the executive
government. One example of this is the
New South Wales Terrorism (Police Powers) Act 2002, which protects some
decisions of the State’s police minister from judicial review. In conclusion, the rule of law is a foundational philosophy or
principle that underpins Australia’s system of government. It operates to
provide citizens with certainty by clearly identifying the conduct required
by the law. It also provides protection by requiring the government to act
according to the law. That said, the rule of law is
sometimes carried only by convention. It is not defined or protected in the
Constitution or other legislation, and its meaning and application is open to
interpretation. Though the rule of law is important, there are anomalies
where the executive arm of government is exempt from ordinary laws of the
land. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
In Westminster 1)________
of government, a minister is a Member of Parliament responsible for managing
and overseeing an important area, such as health, education, transport, defence or water. These 2)________
are known as portfolios and they are usually allocated to MPs by the prime
minister or premier. Occasionally they may reallocate ministerial portfolios
in a reshuffle, allowing him/her to replace 3)________
ministers, retire long-serving ministers and promote new MPs. Ministers can
belong to either House of Parliament, 4)________ most come from the lower
house where the government is formed. Ministers are often high profile,
frequently appearing in the media or in public to announce or discuss matters
related to their 5)________. They may also attract
criticism for errors, incompetence or scandals within their portfolio;
occasionally ministers are forced to resign because of this, an example of
responsible government in action. Most ministers also participate in cabinet
6)________ and decisions (some junior ministers are
not involved). Ministers are influential and important
figures when it comes to law-making. They are responsible for 7)________ legislation, regulations and the operation of organisations involved in their portfolio, such as
government departments and statutory authorities. Although most important law
8)________ are discussed and approved at 9)________
level, the minister is ultimately responsible for overseeing new legislation
in his or her portfolio area. The minister and his/her office are heavily
involved in research, consultation and drafting of new bills. The minister
may communicate 10)________ law reform bodies,
parliamentary committees experts, pressure groups, lobbyists and other
consultants. Ministers may also be involved in the drafting of bills, working
closely with parliamentary counsel. When government bills are 11)________ into the parliament, it is almost always the
relevant minister who does this. Ministers 12)________
the Second Reading speech to the house, explaining the purpose of the bill
and information about its content. Ministers may also be called to 13)________ if there are criticisms of new legislation. In
2010 Peter Garrett, Federal Minister for the Environment, sustained strong
criticism over the 14)________ insulation subsidy
scheme, following the deaths of four workers. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering. Теперь давайте выясним, что такое закон и какое он имеет отношение к праву? Определение. До этого, как это принято в обыденной речи, я называл
законами все нормативные акты, которыми регулируется наша жизнь. Но в строгом
юридическом смысле это было не верно. Законом называется нормативно-правовой
акт (т.е. обязательное для неопределенного круга лиц письменное решение),
принимаемый по специальным правилам законодательным (представительным)
органом власти Российской Федерации или субъекта федерации, регулирующий
наиболее важные вопросы нашей жизни и обладающий после Конституции РФ высшей
юридической силой. А теперь попробуем в этом разобраться. Законодательные органы власти –
это органы, специально созданные, чтобы принимать законы, а поскольку
все они избирается народом и, следовательно, представляют его интересы, они
также называются представительными органами. К ним относятся Федеральное
собрание РФ, которое состоит из Государственной думы РФ (нижняя палата) и
Совета Федерации РФ (верхняя палата), Московская городская Дума,
Законодательное собрание Краснодарского края и т.д. Юридическая сила нормативного акта –
это его способность действовать в случае противоречия другому акту.
Законы обладают высшей юридической силой и действуют всегда (кроме случаев,
когда они противоречат Конституции или законам более высокого уровня,
например, законы субъекта федерации противоречат федеральному закону).
Нормативные акты, противоречащие законам, не применяются. Правда, законы тоже
бывают разных видов, и каждый из них имеет свою юридическую силу. Пример. А вот что бывает, когда нормативные акты, имеющие разную
юридическую силу, противоречат друг другу. Гражданин Минин В.Ю. обратился в Верховный суд РФ с требованием о
признании незаконным пункта 41 Правил сдачи квалификационных экзаменов и
выдачи водительских удостоверений, утвержденных постановлением Правительства
РФ от 8 июля 1997 г. № 831. Давайте прочитаем этот пункт: Правила сдачи квалификационных экзаменов и выдачи водительских
удостоверений Пункт 41 Выдача водительского удостоверения взамен утраченного (похищенного), а
также временного документа, предусмотренного в пункте 40 настоящих Правил,
производится после сдачи заявителем экзаменов. Верховный суд признал его незаконным, т.к. статьей 28 Федерального
закона «О безопасности дорожного движения» от 10 декабря 1995 г. № 196-ФЗ
установлено, что право на управление транспортными средствами прекращается в
случаях: 1) Истечения срока действия водительского удостоверения. 2) Ухудшения здоровья водителя, препятствующее безопасному управлению
транспортными средствами, подтвержденное медицинским заключением. 3) Лишения права на управление транспортными средствами. Далее в решении Верховного суда говорится, что перечень оснований для
лишения права на управление является исчерпывающим, т.е. к нему уже нельзя
ничего добавить потому, что в законе не сказано, что у Правительства РФ есть
такое право. Верховный суд посчитал, что требование о новой сдаче экзаменов в
случае, если у водителя похитили документы, ограничивает права граждан, а в
соответствии со ст. 55 Конституции РФ права и свободы человека и гражданина
могут быть ограничены только федеральным законом, а не постановлением
Правительства. Поскольку пункт 41 Правил противоречил ст. 55 Конституции РФ и ст. 28
Федерального закона «О безопасности дорожного движения», которые имеют
большую юридическую силу, суд признал этот пункт незаконным. Из этого следует, что не нужно отчаиваться, если вам встретился
нормативный акт, который говорит не в вашу пользу. Попробуйте поискать
документ более высокого уровня или, иначе говоря, большей юридической силы, и
если он вас устроит, доказывайте, что применяться должен именно он. Part 2 VALUES AND THE LAW Every society has a range of values – in other words, principles and
ideas about the way people should live, conduct themselves and be treated by others. Because of our history as a
collection of English colonies, Australian values were largely derived from
those of Great Britain. Many of these values are still present in our society
today. However the passage of time, the arrival of millions
of immigrants and our evolution as a nation have allowed Australia to
acquire its own distinct set of values. Individuals acquire their values from
a range of sources: their friends, the education they receive,
their religious beliefs and exposure to the media and cultural elements such
as literature, television, movies and the Internet. Above all, we acquire
most of our core values from our parents, our family and our upbringing. Although Australia is a liberal democracy that permits diversity and
freedom of thought and expression, there are certain core values that the
majority of Australians accept and believe. These fundamental values are the
bedrock of Australian society and inform law-making to a significant degree.
Newcomers to Australia to acknowledge, accept and
abide by these values. Among these core values are a number of values and
beliefs. Australians believe that all citizens should be safe from physical
harm. They believe that personal property should be secure from theft or
damage. They believe that everyone should enjoy equal rights, regardless of
their gender, sexuality, race or religion. They believe everyone has a right
to think and speak freely. They believe everyone has a right to choose and
practice any religious belief. They believe everyone should have reasonable
access to welfare, education and heath care. They
believe everyone is entitled to have a say in the election of governments.
And Australians also believe that everyone should be treated fairly and
equally by the law. Our laws both reflect and reinforce these values and expectations.
Criminal codes protect individuals from physical harm, theft and property
damage. Anti-discrimination laws protect the rights of women, ethnic and
minority groups. The Constitution and legislation guarantees our fundamental
right to participate in the election of governments by voting. Legislation,
the courts and court procedures ensure that individuals receive fair
treatment before the law, if they are accused of a criminal offence or
subject to civil action. The law also reinforces certain social rights and
values by banning practices such as slavery, child trading, people smuggling,
polygamy, female genital mutilation and so on. While there is a broad consensus about these core values, it is worth
remembering that Australia is a multicultural and diverse society, containing
millions of people from different cultural and socio-economic backgrounds.
Australian society has developed a diversity of ideas, values and
expectations. Some of the values and issues that attract a greater diversity
of views amongst Australians – and therefore
varying levels of disagreement –
include: •The rights, recognition and entitlements of same-sex couples. •The types and severity of sanctions that should be imposed on
convicted criminals. •Attitudes about immigration, refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and
citizenship. •Matters of public decency, such as nudity, pornography and sexual
advertising. One of the challenges of the law is to reflect a consensus of views
and values but to do so responsibly, in line with international standards and
with due regard to minorities. Western law has been very much based upon
utilitarianism: the ethical philosophy that law and government should strive
to produce the «greatest happiness for the greatest number». This does not
mean that the law is or should be purely democratic. Making and reforming laws
is not as simple as determining what a majority of people think, since
sometimes even a majority viewpoint may be wrong. The last execution in
Australia was carried out in 1967, after which courts stopped utilising it and parliaments wrote it out of legislation.
However opinion polls for the next three decades showed continued public
support for capital punishment. Conversely, the law should not change simply
to cater to minority groups, temporary shifts in values or passing whims. A
complaint often made about the law is that it reacts and reforms too slowly,
and is often a decade or a generation behind the social values of the day. The main function of the law is to protect the lives, liberties,
rights and property of citizens. There are two fundamental areas of law:
criminal law and civil law. Law represented in news reports, public
discussion or popular culture, such as TV crime shows, it is usually criminal
law. But we often hear about civil law cases too, such as High Court
challenges and actions to recover losses or damages. High-profile divorce
cases also make the news. In 2006 Australian golf professional Greg Norman
(see picture) separated from his wife of 25 years, Laura Norman. Their
somewhat acrimonious divorce case was heard by a Florida court in 2007, with
the court granting Laura Norman a hefty $US100 million settlement. Within
months Greg Norman became engaged to former tennis pro, Chris Evert (also
pictured) – however they have since
divorced, and Norman has married a third time. In simple terms, criminal law refers to: • Laws that are defined by
legislation, enforced by the police and prosecuted by the state. • Laws that set clear and
firm boundaries of conduct for individual behaviour
in a society. • Laws with a strong range
of sanctions or punishments, ranging from fines to imprisonment and, in some
societies, execution. • Laws that deal with
offences against the person, such as murder, attempted murder, assault and
sexual assault. • Laws that deal with
offences against property, such as theft, fraud, arson and vandalism. • Laws that deal with
offences against public morality, such as prostitution, child pornography,
bigamy and indecent exposure. In contrast, civil law: • Is concerned with
protecting the rights and property of individuals that are not necessarily
protected by criminal laws. • Is usually initiated by
an aggrieved party (such as the plaintiff), who takes legal action against
those who they claim to have wronged them. • Is sometimes concerned
with commercial or contractual disputes, such as unpaid monies, an
unfulfilled contract or a breach of promise. • Is sometimes concerned
with resolving family disputes, such as marital break-ups, divorce
settlements, child custody arrangements and child maintenance. • Is sometimes concerned
with examining personal suffering, such as psychological harm or loss of
reputation, to find out if someone is liable and whether they should make
restitution. Criminal and civil law are not mutually exclusive. It is possible for an
individual to be prosecuted for criminal conduct and then face civil action
for the same conduct. Because the standard of proof is higher in criminal law
than civil law, it is not unknown for civil action to succeed, even if the
accused was acquitted in a criminal trial. In 1995 a California jury
acquitted former NFL star Orenthal «OJ» Simpson for
the murder of his wife, Nicole Brown, and another man, Ronald Goldman. Two
years later a civil action against Simpson saw Goldman’s family granted a
payment of $US33.5 million. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
Once a bill is introduced into parliament it
must pass through several stages and checks 1)_________
it becomes legislation. This process is a long and sometimes complex one, and
can vary depending on the type of bill being raised. It also varies slightly
among the various Federal and State 2)_________ of
Australia. The process begins with the drafting of a bill and ends with the
granting of royal assent, public 3)_________ and
enactment. For those who have lobbied or pushed for law reform, the granting
of royal assent can be an important moment. The image above shows volunteer
fire-fighters, 4)_________ had lobbied for statutory
recognition of volunteer 5)_________, with a document of royal assent to a
bill codifying many of their rights. Described here is the process by which a
6)_________ becomes law in the Federal Parliament: Apart from appropriation bills, which must
always 7)_________ in the House of Representatives,
a bill can be 8)_________ into either House of Parliament. Any MP can
introduce bills but generally they are raised by 9)_________.
MPs are forewarned of bills being raised on the parliament’s Notice Paper. The minister or MP raising the bill begins
by reading its short title aloud, then he or she hands the bill and an 10)_________ memorandum to the clerk. The clerk then reads
its long title, formally introducing the bill into the parliament. The 11)_________ will make copies of the bill available to other
MPs, as well as placing it online for examination by the 12)_________ public.
Second reading (speech). The minister or MP
raising the bill delivers a speech, usually immediately after the first
reading, in which he or she explains the necessity for the bill, what it 13)_________ and what it will achieve. This usually takes
place immediately after the first reading. This provides an important context
for the bill and the 14)_________ for its
formulation. These speeches are recorded in Hansard
and may be consulted by judges who later must interpret the legislation. Second reading (debate). After this
introductory speech, discussion on the bill is deferred to a later date. This
allows other MPs, the media and the general public to examine the bill and
form their own 15)_________ and opinions. The
deferment may be a few days or (more commonly) two or more weeks, depending
on the 16)_________ of the bill and the government’s
urgency to see it passed. When debate commences, MPs from the government, the
17)_________, minor parties and independents may
speak in turn on the bill. In theory there is no time limit for debate,
however the parties will generally 18)_________ a
number of speakers, to avoid the process taking too long. A vote is held at
the conclusion of debate and if a majority supports the bill, the process
continues. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Федеральные законы делятся на Федеральные конституционные законы (т.е.
федеральные законы, имеющие большую юридическую силу, чем обычные законы, и
принимающиеся по самым важным вопросам, указанным в Конституции РФ), и просто
федеральные законы. Федеральными конституционными законами являются, например, ФКЗ «О
Правительстве Российской Федерации», ФКЗ «Об уполномоченном по правам
человека», ФКЗ «О судебной системе Российской Федерации» и т. д. Одним из видов обычных (т.е. не конституционных) законов являются
кодексы. Определение. Кодекс – это закон,
регулирующий большую и важную область нашей жизни и заменяющий собою
множество других нормативных актов, которые регулировали те же вопросы до его
принятия. Основными федеральными кодексами, которые нужно иметь под рукой,
являются: Гражданский кодекс РФ, Гражданский процессуальный кодекс РФ,
Уголовный кодекс РФ, Уголовно-процессуальный кодекс РФ, Семейный кодекс РФ,
Трудовой кодекс РФ и т.д. Если в названии закона вместо слов «Федеральный закон» вы увидите
«Закон РФ», или «Закон РСФСР», то не смущайтесь. Это точно такие же
федеральные законы, но принятые до вступления в силу Конституции РФ от 12 декабря
1993 г., поскольку тогда они назывались именно так. Они имеют такую же силу,
как и современные федеральные законы. До 1994 г. в СССР, а потом и в России принимались акты, которые
назывались «Основы законодательства». Например, Основы законодательства о
культуре от 9 октября 1992 г. № 3612-I или Основы законодательства Российской
Федерации об охране здоровья граждан от 22 июля 1993 г. № 5487-1, которые
также являются законами и действуют наравне с федеральными законами. Давайте договоримся, что я и дальше буду называть законами, не только
законы в строгом юридическом смысле, но и вообще все нормативные акты. Когда
же речь будет идти именно о законах, я буду использовать их точное название:
«федеральный закон», «закон субъекта федерации» и т.д. Part 3 LEGISLATION Legislation is law that is developed, debated and passed by a
parliament. It is also known as parliament-made law or statutory law.
Legislation can be passed by either the Commonwealth parliament or the
various State parliaments. The law-making power of parliaments is defined and
limited by constitutions. Legislation starts its life as a bill, or proposed
legislation. Bills are drafted by parliamentary counsel, then announced and
debated within the parliament itself. If a bill is passed by the parliament
it is signed by the governor or governor-general and becomes legislation. A
single item of legislation is sometimes called a statute or an act of
parliament. Once legislation is passed it can only be amended or repealed
(abolished) by the same parliament that passed it. Legislation is a law that has been made and enacted by a legislature,
such as a parliament. A single piece of legislation is also known as an act
of parliament or a statute, while legislation is broadly known as statutory
law. Formulating new legislation and reviewing and amending existing
legislation is the main business of Federal, State
and Territory parliaments. Changing or creating legislation is also the main
avenue for politicians to initiate change and manage problems in our society.
The Rudd government’s contentious «alcopops» tax
law, for example, was an attempt to curtail underage and teenage drinking by
increasing the cost of pre-mixed spirit drinks. Its Emissions Trading Scheme
(ETS) bill was a law to help address the problem of climate change. Not all
government-initiated change comes from legislation, however. Kevin Rudd’s
2008 apology to the indigenous «Stolen Generation» was not a law, but simply
a statement of apology, read in parliament and endorsed by MPs with a vote. Legislation is considered a higher form of law because it can override
or annul most other laws, including previous legislation, court-made law or
regulations passed by subordinate authorities. Legislation is also the most
democratic source of law because it is made by representatives chosen by the
people. There is also a degree of self-checking in legislative law-making,
since most Australian parliaments are bicameral and legislation must be
endorsed by a vice-regal authority. In the Federal jurisdiction, for example,
legislation can only pass with the approval of both the
House of Representatives and the Senate, then the Governor-General
(representing the Queen). Once legislation receives royal assent it is
proclaimed and enacted and becomes the law of the land – however even then it is not set in stone,
as legislation is subject to review by the courts. Plus any legislation may
be abolished, amended or replaced by future parliaments. There are a number of ways in which the Australian people can participate
in the formulation, review and amendment of legislation. The most direct
response is to vote against the government responsible for unpopular
legislation. Most political commentators believe that the Howard government’s
defeat in the November 2007 Federal election was because of its unpopular Workchoices law. Governments tend to avoid creating or
passing unpopular legislation for this reason. However the people can have
their say on legislation and perhaps influence change in a number of other
ways, as shall be explored in the pages about law reform. All legislation starts its life as a bill. A bill is a proposed law
that is introduced into the parliament, where it is subject to scrutiny,
discussion, debate and voting. If there is sufficient support for a bill in
both houses of parliament then the bill will be approved for royal assent and
passed into law. Before a bill is introduced into parliament, however, it
must be created, written and checked. The process of conceiving and drafting
a bill is complex and involves many groups, ideas, factors and steps. This
process is rarely fast: it usually takes months, sometimes even years for an
idea to appear as a bill and then legislation. Some of the factors that
determine how bills are initiated include: Party ideology. All political parties have a set of common values and
ideas, shared by their members. These values and ideas shape the kinds of
legislation they would like to see enacted. Parties therefore develop and
introduce bills that reflect their core values. In most cases this is done by
the party in government, however the opposition or
minor parties can also draft and raise bills (though this is rare, since
without a majority they are unlikely to succeed). Election campaigns. The four weeks or so prior to an election is
called a campaign. During this time each political party reveals its policies
to voters. These policies may include promises of new legislation and
amendments or repeal of existing legislation. The parties attempt to win
voter support by demonstrating how they would change the law to improve
living conditions and society within their jurisdiction. In 2007 an election
promise of the Rudd Labor Party was that it would scrap the unpopular Workchoices legislation. Media attention and public interest. Sometimes issues and problems
receive much attention in the media, prompting parties or individual MPs to
attempt a legislative response. Environmental concerns such as climate change
and global warming, economic crises such as the global financial crisis and
social problems such as night-time violence in urban Melbourne have all
contributed to the development of new legislation and regulations. Other pressures for law reform. These include but are not limited to:
advice from parliamentary committees; recommendations from law reform bodies
such as the ALRC and VLRC; pressure groups and lobbyists; legal advice from
government lawyers and policy advisors; information and advice from
government departments; and changes to international law. Advice from medical
experts, marketing specialists and bureaucrats has led to legislation
governing the packaging of tobacco products (see picture). Regardless of
these pressures, in most cases the Prime Minister and Cabinet will make the
final decision on which bills are introduced into the parliament. Once the decision has been made to create a bill, the bill itself must
be drafted (written). This process can itself be long and complicated. Bills must
contain language that is unambiguous and conveys its meaning and intent as
clearly as possible. As prospective pieces of legislation, bills must be
constitutional and avoid conflict with other laws, whether in the same
jurisdiction or in other jurisdictions. Above all, bills must be constructed
in such a way that they facilitate the smooth functioning of the law:
upholding community values, providing consistency and fairness, furnishing
judges with adequate information and accommodating a broad range of possible
scenarios. Because of this, lawyers are heavily involved in the drafting of
bills. Most Federal government bills are prepared by the Office of
Parliamentary Counsel, a department specialising in
the drafting of bills. Ministers provide parliamentary counsel with a
briefing about what the bill is to contain and counsel acts on these
instructions. State and Territory governments employ their own departments,
parliamentary committees and legal advisors for the same purpose. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
Consideration in detail (House of
Representatives) and Committee of the whole (Senate). During these 1)__________ the details of the bill are closely examined
and discussed. Every section and clause of the bill is read and MPs are
permitted to speak briefly about them. Amendments may be 2)__________,
such as the replacement, removal or addition of key words. These stages are
optional and may be 3)__________, if MPs do not object (this is usually the
case for bills that are short or simple in scope, bills that repeal or amend
other acts, or bills that are supported by both major parties). Third reading. If the bill passes through
the second reading and committee stages, it is again moved by the original 4)__________ or MP. MPs are asked to vote for or against
the motion; debate during this stage is rare. If a majority supports the bill
then the 5)__________ again reads its long title,
signifying that the bill has passed the house. The 6)__________
House. Bills must pass both Houses to become law. Since most bills originate
in the House of Representatives, once they have passed that house they are
then transported to the Senate, where the above process is completed. The
Senate may block the bill or 7)__________
amendments, particularly if the government of the day does not enjoy a
majority there. In practice a lot of negotiation about amendments occurs
«behind the scenes» between the government, the opposition, 8)__________ parties and independent MPs, to avoid the
blocking or failure of bills. Royal assent. The final stage in the
legislative process is the granting of royal assent by the Governor-General,
who 9)__________ it to be law «…in the name of Her
Majesty». Proclamation and 10)__________.
All new legislation is formally announced in the Government Gazette, along with
the date on which it comes into effect; this is known as proclamation. The
legislation becomes law on the specified 11)__________,
when it is considered to have been enacted. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Закон – 1) юридический акт, принятый высшим представительным органом
государственной власти либо непосредственным волеизъявлением народа (в
порядке референдума) и регулирующий, как правило, наиболее важные
общественные отношения. Составляет основу системы права государства, обладает
наибольшей юридической силой по отношению к нормативным актам всех иных
органов государства. Для 3. характерен особый порядок принятия, специальная законо-творческая процедура,
распадающаяся на ряд стадий: законодательная инициатива, обсуждение
законопроекта, принятие закона и его опубликование. Будучи единым по способу
формирования, положению в правовой системе государства и роли в регулировании
общественных связей, 3. в то же время делится на определенные виды. В
частности, по значимости содержащихся в законе норм они делятся на
конституционные, органические (см. Конституционный
закон, Органический закон) и обычные. Обычные 3. делятся на кодификационные и
текущие; 2) в широком смысле – нормативные правовые акты в целом; все
установленные государством общеобязательные правила. |