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CONTENTS UNIT
1. INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY MANAGEMENT UNIT
8.EVIDENCE BASED DECISION MAKING UNIT
9. RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT |
UNIT 2. EVOLUTION
Part A The history of quality management can be
traced all the way back to The Middle Ages. Work completed by journeymen and
apprentices were evaluated and inspected by the skilled worker to ensure that
quality standards were met in all aspects of the finished product, ensuring
satisfaction of the buyer. And while the history of quality management has
gone through a number of changes since that time, the end goal is still the
same. It was during the 1920’s when quality management
systems, as we know them today, started to surface. While the focus of
quality management was still on the end product, it was the first time that
statistical theory was applied to product quality control. Product quality control was determined
through inspections. This involved measuring, examining and testing the
products, processes and services against specific requirements to ensure that
each element adhered to set standards and guidelines. This algorithm worked for quite some time.
Over time, however, businesses began to grow and expand. More and more
products were manufactured throughout the day. Companies started to experience difficulties
in following through with quality control standards. It became evident that
there was a great need for change and development. Change and development were brought forth
during the 1940’s by industry leaders and experts like Deming, Dodge, Juran and Roming. This would be
the beginning of Total Quality Management as we know it today. Inspections were now carried out by
production personnel. They were responsible for inspections during specific
production intervals. This would change the focus from simply inspecting the
end product to actually preventing end product problems through early
detection on the production line. It was also during the 1940’s that Japan
caught wind of Total Quality Management. At that time, Japanese products were
considered poor quality imitations. Hearing about the success of quality
management in the west, Japan employed the assistance of quality management
experts like Deming and Juran. Little did the
Western culture know at that time, Japan would soon push the envelope and set
new standards in TQM. During the first international quality
management conference in 1969, Feigenbaum would first
use the phrase Total Quality Management. Feigenbaum,
however, would not meet the depth of understanding of the term that Japanese
attendee and speaker, Ishikawa would. Ishikawa would indicate during the
conference that TQM should apply to all employees within the organization –
from the workers to the head management. The Western culture would soon catch up,
however. By the 1980’s, the Western culture would take notice of Japan’s
success and start to set and adhere to higher Total Quality Management guidelines.
At this time, however, it was unclear as to what exactly TQM involved. The U.S. Government would soon be
responsible for making those guidelines and standards clear with their
development of the Malcolm Baldrige Award; an award
that could be won by businesses that exhibited quality management excellence.
Other countries, like Europe, would follow in the United States» footsteps
and develop similar awards. Today, companies all over the globe compete for
the hundreds of Excellence Awards now given. The purpose of quality
management, however, still remains the same as it has, all through history –
to ensure that customers receive an excellent, quality product. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into
the text below.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the 1)_______
countries of North America and Western Europe suffered economically in the
face of stiff competition from Japan's ability to produce high-quality goods
at 2)_______ cost. For the first time since the start of the Industrial
Revolution, the United Kingdom became a net importer of 3)_______
goods. The United States undertook its own soul-searching, expressed most
pointedly in the television 4)_______ of If Japan
Can... Why Can't We? Firms 5)_______ reexamining the
techniques of quality control invented over the past 50 years and how those
techniques had been so successfully employed by the Japanese. It was in the
midst of this 6)_______ turmoil that TQM took root. The exact 7)_______ of the term «total
quality management» is uncertain. It is almost certainly inspired by Armand
V. Feigenbaum's multi-edition book Total Quality
Control (OCLC 299383303) and Kaoru Ishikawa's What Is Total Quality Control?
The Japanese Way (OCLC 11467749). It may have been first coined in the United
Kingdom by the Department of Trade and Industry 8)_______
its 1983 «National Quality Campaign». Or it may have been first coined in the
United States by the Naval Air Systems Command to 9)_______
its quality-improvement efforts in 1985. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. История системы менеджмента качества предприятий начинается с
постановки конкретной задачи – разработка и внедрение системы, которая может
успешно функционировать и развиваться в условиях современного экономического
рынка. Для получения сертификата соответствия, существующую систему
необходимо усовершенствовать, чтобы она отвечала международным и российским
государственным стандартам. Решение о создании системы менеджмента качества
принимается высшим руководством предприятия. Конструирование и проектирование такой системы менеджмента качества
может растянуться не на один год. История создания СМК начинается с
масштабной работы: составление плана развития на последующие годы, разработка
политики в сфере качества, создание базы нормативов системы менеджмента
качества и правил корректировки управленческих процессов. Разрабатываются и
запускаются механизмы с целью регулярного и поэтапного анализа документов и
результатов деятельности организации. Внедряется система производственного
планирования, включающая в себя три последовательных уровня: производственный
план направления деятельности, план отдельного управления или отдела и
частный ресурсный план каждого сотрудника. Определяются цели и показатели
эффективности деятельности по разным направлениям. Для сертификации системы менеджмента качества высшим руководством
предприятия выбирается уполномоченный орган по сертификации. Одним из самых
авторитетных органов за всю историю сертификации является корпорация «ТЮФ Тюринген». После внутренней проверки системы менеджмента качества на соответствие
требованиям международного стандарта, приглашается сторонняя организация для
проведения предсертификационных экспертиз и
аудитов. Если при внешней проверке существенных отклонений от образца не
обнаруживается, а незначительные поправки и рекомендации оперативно
учитываются с последующим внесением соответствующих изменений в систему,
предприятие успешно проходит сертификационную экспертизу. Документы, выданные
контролирующей организацией, подтверждают то, что система менеджмента
качества отвечает всем запросам стандарта международного уровня DIN EN ISO
9001:2000. Проверку осуществляют зарубежные эксперты с мировым именем,
имеющие богатый опыт сертифицирования большого
количества аналогичных инжиниринговых компаний разных стран, в том числе и
европейских. Но получение сертификата соответствия – это лишь первый этап в истории
системы менеджмента качества (СМК), означающий, что система разработана и
требует дальнейшего развития и внедрения инновационных решений. В течение
трех лет, после получения сертификата, аудиторы проводят различные проверки,
которые подтверждают динамику развития системы в положительном направлении. Срок действия данного сертификата – три года. Для его пролонгации
проводится ресертификационный аудит, который
требует от внедренной предприятием системы менеджмента уже принципиально
иного уровня. Сведения о «TUV CERT» («ТЮФ СЕРТ») – немецком органе по сертификации. Организация начала свою историю деятельности в 1866 году. В ее
обязанности входил контроль работы паровых котлов. В частности проведение
исследований в области вредного воздействия их на человека и разработка
методов, сводящих к минимуму такое воздействие. Успешная деятельность компании
способствовала сокращению государством собственного ведомственного контроля
во многих направлениях, поручив TUV CERT надзор за другими опасными
техническими объектами. На сегодняшний день «ТЮФ» является крупнейшим мировым
сертификационным центром, членом «Independent International Organization for Certification» –
независимой международной организации по сертификации. Part B The history of quality management, from mere
«inspection» to Total Quality Management, and its modern «branded
interpretations such as «Six Sigma»,
has led to the development of essential processes, ideas, theories and
tools that are central to organizational development, change management, and
the performance improvements that are generally desired for individuals,
teams and organizations. These free resources, materials and tools are
an excellent guide to the quality management area, for practical application
in organizations, for study and learning, and for teaching and training
others. These free pdf materials are provided by
permission of the UK Department of Industry – now the Department for
Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform – which is gratefully
acknowledged. The materials listed and linked from this page are subject to
Crown Copyright. Please note that since the replacement of the
UK Department of Industry by the Department for Business, Enterprise and
Regulatory Reform, the branding on the materials is now obsolete.
Nevertheless, since the Quality Management technical and historical content
is unaffected by the DTI branding the materials remain relevant for training,
learning and reference. It is appropriate to note the passing a little
while back now, of Joseph Juran, a seminal figure in the history of quality
management, who died 28 February 2008, age 103. Juran did more than teach the
Japanese about quality management. He was also arguably the first quality
expert to emphasise that no quality management system works unless people are
empowered and committed to take responsibility for quality – as an ongoing process
– effectively for quality to become part of part of people's behaviour and
attitudes – an ethos. The section below on Kaizen explains the connections
between the true ethos of quality management, and the positive ethical
management of people. Further total quality management information
and quality management terminology explanations are on the Six Sigma page. The roots of Total Quality Management can be
traced to early 1920's production quality control ideas, and notably the
concepts developed in Japan beginning in the late 1940's and 1950's,
pioneered there by Americans Feigenbum, Juran and Deming... More about Quality Management and TQM
history. Quality Management resulted mainly from the
work of the quality gurus and their theories: the American gurus featured in
the 1950's Japan: Joseph Juran, W Edwards Deming,
and Armand Feigenbum; the Japanese quality gurus
who developed and extended the early American quality ideas and models: Kaoru
Ishikawa, Genichi Taguchi, and Shigeo Shingo; and
the 1970-80's American Western gurus, notably Philip Crosby and Tom Peters,
who further extended the Quality Management concepts after the Japanese
successes... More about the Quality Management gurus and their theories,
including the development and/or use of the Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA)
cycle, Pareto analysis, cause and effect diagrams, stratification,
check-sheets, histograms, scatter-charts, process control charts, system
design, parameter design, tolerance design ('Taguchi methodology'), Quality
Improvement Teams (QIT), Just In Time (JIT), Management By Walking About
(MBWA), McKinsey 7-S Framework, etc. Total Quality Management features centrally
the customer-supplier interfaces, (external and internal customers and
suppliers). A number of processes sit at each interface. Central also is an
organizational commitment to quality, and the importance of communicating
this quality commitment, together with the acknowledgement that the right
organizational culture is essential for effective Total Quality Management....
More about the fundamentals and structures of the TQM model, including the
people, processes and systems in the organization. Understanding processes is essential before
attempt is made to improve them. This is a central aspect to Total Quality
Management, and also to more modern quality and process improvement
interpretations and models such as Six Sigma....
More about Total Quality Management process and process improvement methods. A wide range of tools and techniques is used
for identifying, measuring, prioritising and
improving processes which are critical to quality. Again these ideas and
methods feature prominently in modern interpretations of Total Quality
Management methodology, such as Six Sigma. These process improvement tools
and techniques include: DRIVE (Define, Review, Identify, Verify, Execute),
process mapping, flow-charting, force field analysis, cause and effect,
brainstorming, Pareto analysis, Statistical Process Control (SPC), Control
charts, bar charts, «dot plot» and tally charts, check-sheets, scatter
diagrams, matrix analysis, histograms..... More about tools and techniques
for process evaluation and improvement. People are a fundamental component within
any successfully developing organization. Take away the people and the organization
is nothing. Take away the people's motivation, commitment and ability to work
together in well-organised teams, and again, the
organization is nothing. Conversely, inspire the people to work well,
creatively, productively, and the organization can fly. Logically therefore,
the development and proper utilization of people are vital to the success of
all quality management initiatives. There are a wide range of models that are
used in selecting, assessing, training and developing and motivating people,
among which are classical models such as Belbin,
Myers Briggs Type Indicator (see the personality models section), Bruce Tuckman's «Forming, Storming, Norming,
Performing» model, John Adair's Action Centred
Leadership model.... More about people and culture within quality management.
A «Total Quality organization» generally
benefits from having an effective Quality Management System (QMS). A Quality
Management System is typically defined as: «A set of co-ordinated
activities to direct and control an organization in order to continually
improve the effectiveness and efficiency of its performance». Customer
expectations inevitably drive and define «performance» criteria and
standards. Therefore Quality Management Systems focus on customer
expectations and ongoing review and improvement.... More about Quality
Management Systems, what they are, and how to set up a good QMS. There are many ways to measure
organizational performance other than financial output or profit. Modern
measurement focuses on the essential activities, resources and other factors
– many less intangible than traditional indictors – that impact on final
outputs. These include modern methods such as Balanced Scorecard... More
about performance measurement, and cost of quality. The European Foundation for Quality
Management (EFQM) Excellence Model® is a useful framework for developing
quality and excellence within an organization... More. Any organization can assess itself provided
it has the commitment to so so,
and a framework for the self-assessment... Here are some ideas, and a process
for quality and excellence self-assessment. Benchmarking is a widely used term within
the field of organizational measurement and management ....
Here is an explanation of benchmarking, and a questionnaire by which an
organization (or a department or process team) can assess its readiness for
benchmarking. Here is a framework and «blueprint» for the
implementation of a quality improvement or «excellence» initiative. It
includes the following elements: • TQM Processes • Tools and techniques • People and teamwork • Quality management system • Performance measurement • EFQM Excellence Model® • Self-assessment This blueprint for achieving organizational
excellence is based on many years of research, education and advisory work in
the European Centre for Business Excellence (ECforBE),
and the research and education division of Oakland Consulting plc. It is,
along with the other resources in this section, information and advice initially
from the UK Department of Industry, now replaced by the Department for
Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Read and translate the following word
combinations from English into Russian. Serious accusations of corruption and a lack
of transparency, media outlets, voicing public opinion, civil servants
working at lower levels in the system hierarchy, The National Association for
Local Government Officers, to safeguard the rights of civil servants, to
claim better pensions and salaries, to ensure the rise through the ranks
within the civil service through open Quality promotion Quality procedures,
to inform the public about the social role of government, a Quality communications,
political success of regimes, to Quality prompt a debate concerning how the
UK might address the emerging situation, to counteract the apparent threat of
information broadcast from countries under totalitarian control potential to
affect the established political order, the economic crisis, the
implementation of mechanized means of industrial Qualityoduction,
the Ministry of Information. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. История возникновения СМК ведет к началу индустриальной революции,
когда был развит однотипный вид деятельности. Например: ремесленник –
управлял и контролировал не только разработку и проектирование своей
продукции, но и ее производство, продажу и, соответственно, качество. В ходе промышленной революции в XIX веке в Британии возникали мелкие
мастерские, которыми руководили ремесленники. Именно эти ремесленники
послужили базой образования первых производственных объединений, хотя в то
время это были только объединения приятелей. Первыми, кто организовался в
такие объединения еще в далеком 1825 году, были искусные ремесленники,
столяры, портные и текстильные производители. Эра ремесленников длилась примерно до 1910 года. Во время Первой Мировой Войны усиливается значение контроля за
качеством из-за отсутствия сильных кадров и использования плохо обученных или
вновь поступивших сотрудников. Между тем, по мере того как развивалась наука, техника и технология,
предприятия становились еще крупнее, владелец больше не мог присутствовать
постоянно и везде, поэтому решения стали принимать и выполнять другие
назначенные лица, но не с той же заинтересованностью, что была бы в случае с
ремесленником. Следовательно, значение вопросов качества возрастало, так как
теперь не только предприятие ощущало последствия ошибок, но и широкий круг
потребителей. Например, ошибка в производстве лекарств могла стать причиной
многих смертельных исходов при лечении; неисправность электрического контакта
могла парализовать целую промышленность; а неисправность газового оборудования
могла вызвать взрыв. Это вызвало необходимость пересмотреть подход к
управлению, вызвав потребность в новой системе – системе менеджмента качества
(СМК). По мере того, как на крупных предприятиях расширялся штат сотрудников,
создавались различные производственные подразделения, в изготовлении
продукции стали принимать участие многочисленные отделы, качество
изготовляемой продукции начинало теряться по причине сложности контроля всех
подразделений, участвующих в производстве, что отрицательно отражалось на
удовлетворении нужд потребителей. Под влиянием всего этого,
постепенно, на производствах усиливалась роль инспекции и контроля качества,
что привело к формированию отдельных организационных структур, называемых
Отделами Контроля Качества, которые и начали осваивать такие области, как
стандартизация, предупреждение ошибок и анализ жалоб потребителей. Дальнейшее
развитие системы менеджмента качества (СМК) происходило в области надежности
инжиниринга, проектирования и разработки изготавливаемой продукции. Для стимулирования производства
качественных товаров в 1990-х годах появляются многочисленные премии Качества
в США, а во многих других странах учреждены ежегодные награды за качество,
как например, Европейская Премия Качества, которая присуждается за достигнутые
результаты и за перспективы развития. Part C The roots of Total Quality Management (TQM)
can be traced back to early 1920s when statistical theory was first applied
to product quality control. This concept was further developed in Japan in the
40s led by Americans, such as Deming, Juran and Feigenbaum. The focus widened from quality of products to
quality of all issues within an organisation – the
start of TQM. The following shows the history of Total
Quality Management, from inspection to business excellence. Inspection involves measuring, examining,
and testing products, process and services against specified requirements to
determine conformity. The use of inspection has been evident
throughout the history of organised production. In
the late Middle Ages, special measures were taken to inspect the work of
apprentices and journeymen in order to guard the Guild against claims of
makeshift or shoddy work. During the early years of manufacturing,
inspection was used to decide whether a worker’s job or a product met the
requirements; therefore, acceptable. It was not done in a systematic way, but
worked well when the volume of production was reasonably low. However, as organisations became larger, the need for more effective
operations became apparent. In 1911, Frederick W. Taylor helped to
satisfy this need. He published «The Principles of Scientific Management»
which provided a framework for the effective use of people in industrial organisations. One of Taylor’s concepts was clearly
defined tasks performed under standard conditions. Inspection was one of
these tasks and ·
was
intended to ensure that no faulty product left the factory or workshop; ·
focuses
on the product and the detection of problems in the product; ·
involves
testing every item to ensure that it complies with product specifications; ·
is carried out at the
end of the production process; and relies on specially trained inspectors. This movement led to the emergence of a
separate inspection department. An important new idea that emerged from this
new department was defect prevention, which led to quality control. Inspection still has an important role in
modern quality practices. However, it is no longer seen as the answer to all
quality problems. Rather, it is one tool within a wider array. Quality Control was introduced to detect and
fix problems along the production line to prevent the production of faulty
products. Statistical theory played an important role in this area. In the
1920s, Dr W. Shewhart developed the application of
statistical methods to the management of quality. He made the first modern
control chart and demonstrated that variation in the production process leads
to variation in product. Therefore, eliminating variation in the process
leads to a good standard of end products. Statistical Quality Control: ·
focuses
on product and the detection and control of quality problems; ·
involves
testing samples and statistically infers compliance of all products; ·
is
carried out at stages through the production process; and ·
relies on
trained production personnel and quality control professionals. Shewart’s work was later developed by Deming, Dodge and Roming. However,
manufacturing companies did not fully utilise these
techniques until the late 1940s. In the 1940s, Japanese products were
perceived as cheep, shoddy imitations. Japanese
industrial leaders recognised this problem and
aimed to produce innovative high quality products. They invited a few quality
gurus, such as Deming, Juran, and Feigenbaum to learn how to achieve this aim. Deming suggested that they can achieve their
goal in five years; not many Japanese believed him. However, they followed
his suggestions. Maybe the Japanese thought it was rude to say that they did
not believe Deming. Or maybe they thought it would be embarrassing if they
could not follow his suggestions. Whatever reason it was, they took Deming’s
and other gurus» advice and never looked back. In the 1950s, quality control and management
developed quickly and became a main theme of Japanese management. The idea of
quality did not stop at the management level. Quality circles started in the
early 60s. A quality circle is a volunteer group of workers who meet and
discuss issues to improve any aspects of workplace, and make presentations to
management with their ideas. A by-product of quality circles was employee
motivation . Workers felt that they were involved
and heard. Another by-product was the idea of improving not only quality of
the products, but also every aspect of organisational
issues. This probably was the start of the idea, total quality. The term «total quality» was used for the
first time in a paper by Feigenbaum at the first
international conference on quality control in Tokyo in 1969. The term
referred to wider issues within an organisation. Ishikawa also discussed «total quality
control» in Japan, which is different from the western idea of total quality.
According to his explanation, it means «company-wide quality control» that
involves all employees, from top management to the workers, in quality
control. In the 1980s to the 1990s, a new phase of
quality control and management began. This became known as Total Quality
Management (TQM). Having observed Japan’s success of employing quality
issues, western companies started to introduce their own quality initiatives.
TQM, developed as a catchall phrase for the broad spectrum of quality-focused
strategies, programmes and techniques during this
period, became the centre of focus for the western quality movement. A typical definition of TQM includes phrases
such as: customer focus, the involvement of all employees, continuous
improvement and the integration of quality management into the total organisation. Although the definitions were all similar,
there was confusion. It was not clear what sort of practices, policies, and
activities needed to be implemented to fit the TQM definition. In 1988 a major step forward in quality
management was made with the development of the Malcolm Baldrige
Award in the United States. The model, on which the award was based,
represented the first clearly defined and internationally recognised
TQM model. It was developed by the
United States government to encourage companies to adopt the model and
improve their competitiveness. In response to this, a similar model was
developed by the European Foundation of Quality Management in 1992. This EFQM
Excellence Model is the framework for the European Quality Award. While leading organisations
compete to win awards, the main purpose of these awards is to encourage more
companies to adopt quality management principles. The models are practical
tools; they help organisations to measure where
they are now and where they want to be in the future. The models also help organisations to create a plan to reduce the gap between
these positions. Today, hundreds of quality awards and
several models exist all over the world. For more information on some of
these models, visit «Excellence Models'. TQM models are often called Business
Excellence Models. Also, TQM itself is now often called Business Excellence.
This is to distinguish the «new TQM» from the past work on TQM. As mentioned earlier, there was confusion as
to what TQM was in the 80s and early 90s. This was because any business
improvement programme was becoming called TQM.
Therefore, the name TQM became tarnished. Business Excellence is really the same as
TQM, but with a more clearly defined approach. Increasing number of organisations,
large or small, have become involved in TQM/Business Excellence in the new
millennium. The Centre for Organisational
Excellence Research (COER), recognised
the need for resources devoted to this area and launched the BPIR.com in
April 2002. Today, the BPIR.com members» area provides
the most comprehensive information and services related to quality, quality
management, TQM and Business Excellence. Whether you are quality practitioner
or a manager focussed on business improvement, the
resources within the members» area will help you to have a greater impact within
your workplace. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
Quality 1)________, as well as any other
management area or field of management evolves over the years through a
2)________, which is influenced by the method of management of organizations,
namely by different schools and views in the 3)________ of organizing. The origins of quality management are
undoubtedly connected with the production and quality of 4)________,
focusing mainly on their own production process and technical control of
inputs and 5)________. Approaches to quality management
significantly enforced in the automotive and aerospace 6)________,
as the products must have a high degree of reliability in the first mentioned
case, together with a high level of competition. Original American School was
developed in the fifties by a 7)________ of Japanese
authors and companies, starting in the approach of quality to promote the
customer’s perspective. The Japanese 8)________
to quality in the industry has become an almost standard instrument. It was
not until the early eighties that approaches to 9)________
standards (ISO 9000 in 1987) are evident. The table below shows the key milestones,
personalities, their works and the main ideas that shaped the history of
quality management. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Науке известно, что управление существовало еще в древнем Шумере пять
тысяч лет назад. Однако управление в древности сильно отличалось от современного. Например, было меньше руководителей среднего
звена, малочисленной была группа руководителей высшего эвена, имеющих право
принимать решения. Очень часто руководство осуществлялось одним человеком. Есть в истории и примеры организации с формализованными структурами,
которые управлялись так же, как они управляются в наше время. Примером может
быть римская католическая церковь, где существует структура, установленная
еще основателями христианства. Но до XX в. никто не задумывался над тем, чтобы организациями управлять
системно. Понимание этого вынашивалось в течение длительного времени, начиная
с середины XIX в. и до 20-х годов XX в. Отправной точкой развития современного менеджмента считают 1866 год. В
этом году бизнесмен Г. Таун выступил на собрании
Американского общества инженеров-механиков с докладом «Инженер как
экономист». В этом докладе впервые говорилось о необходимости менеджмента как
профессиональной специализации и научной дисциплины. Доклад произвел большое
впечатление на присутствующего на нем инженера-механика Ф.У. Тейлора и явился
стимулом для создания им теории научного менеджмента. До Тейлора понятие менеджмента носило весьма обобщенный характер. Он
впервые определил его как «рациональную организацию вообще» или «организацию производства»
по отношению к промышленному предприятию. Теория возникла в условиях
монополистического капитализма. Рост масштабов и концентрация производства
требовали стандартизации и унификации всего производственного процесса.
Дальнейший рост эффективности производства стал немыслим без всесторонней
рационализации экономики, времени и ресурсов. Ф. Тейлор, А. Файоль, Г. Эмерсон,
Г. Форд, дополняя друг друга, создали теорию научного менеджмента. Ее
основатели пришли к созданию теории на основе своей практической
деятельности, работая в качестве инженеров и администраторов на промышленных
предприятиях. Затем опробированные эмпирическим
путем принципы привели к созданию теории. Ф. Тейлор сосредоточивал свое внимание на цеховом управлении. Г. Эмерсон и Г. Форд – на всем производственном процессе, А.
Файоль занимался организацией управленческого труда
на высших его ступенях. Школа человеческих отношений во главу своего учения ставит человеческий
фактор. Основателями этой школы были Мэри Паркер Фоллетт и Элтон Мэйо. Определение менеджмента как обеспечение выполнения
работы с помощью других лиц впервые было дано М. Фоллетт.
Представитель школы человеческих отношений Д. Макгрегор
выдвинул два подхода к организации управления: первый основан на применении
принуждения и поощрения («кнута и пряника»), второй – на создании условий
стимулирования у работников инициативы, изобретательности и самостоятельности
в достижении целей организации. В 50-е годы нашего столетия активно начали развиваться такие науки, как
психология и социология. Одновременно совершенствовались и методы
исследования поведения человека в производственном коллективе. Этими
исследованиями в США занимались такие крупные исследователи, как Крис Арджирис, Ренсис Лайкерт, Дуглас Макгрегор, Фредерик Герцберг. Объектами этих и других исследователей были различные аспекты
социального взаимодействия, мотивации к труду, характера власти и авторитета,
организационной структуры, линии связи в организациях, лидерства, изменение
содержание работы и качества трудовой жизни. Если школа человеческих отношений сосредоточивала свое внимание главным
образом на методах налаживания межличностных отношений, то новый подход
стремился в большей степени оказать помощь работнику в осознании своих
собственных возможностей. Методы изучения работника основывались на
применении науки о поведении к построению и управлению организациями. Главной
целью школы поведенческих наук было повышение эффективности предприятия
(организации) за счет повышения эффективности человеческого фактора
(человеческих ресурсов). В отличие от западного, история российского менеджмента измеряется
годами. Менеджмент как система управления в нашей стране стал развиваться с
приходом к власти Н.С. Хрущева. С. Хрущев пытался изменить организацию
экономики и управление ей с помощью совнархозов. Его политика была направлена
на расшатывание жесткой управленческой вертикали, монополии центра: ей
противопоставлялось множество экономических субъектов, имевших возможность
относительно самостоятельно принимать часть решений. Важно и то, что во
времена Н.С. Хрущева получил формальное признание принцип экономической
заинтересованности работников, который пришел на смену сталинскому принципу
«голого энтузиазма». Советская экономическая система 1960-х гг. успешно развивалась, а
проводимые технологические преобразования требовали поиска новых, более
гибких методов управления. |